by Phoebe Davis ‘24.5
Preface
I am a cisgender Chinese-American female, born in Changsha, China and raised in a predominantly white neighborhood in Manhattan, New York by upper class white parents. While I am not white, I still recognize that I benefit in many ways from a society that continues to disfavor and cause harm to minorities, particularly black and Indigenous communities. Along with research from various scholars of various cultural backgrounds, I am using my own words in this paper and I want to make it clear that I am not speaking for or on behalf of Abenaki peoples or any other Indigenous community.
Historically, white European colonizers used language in their writing that created a false and generally negative perception of Indigenous peoples in North America. Since the colonizers wanted to steal Indigenous land and resources, they created a narrative, whether consciously or not, that depicted Indigenous peoples as subhuman or as “savages.” These harmful stereotypes and depictions laid the foundation for concepts like Manifest Destiny; it was the settler’s God given right to take over and “develop” the land since they believed Indigenous people were not advanced enough to do so properly. Today, while the idea of overt racism towards Indigenous people may be looked upon with disapproval, there are still covert ways non-Indigenous people can perpetuate racism through their writing about Indigenous peoples and Indigenous culture. Being a non-Indigenous person should not in and of itself disqualify one from studying and writing about the culture and history of Indigenous peoples. There is, however, a point where boundaries can be crossed or good intentions can have a negative impact, so great care must be taken when writing. The process of writing about Indigenous peoples, cultures, and experiences as non-Indigenous authors involves understanding how to use language respectfully, and reflecting critically on one’s own privilege, point of view and intentions.
Words have a strong influence and power that is too often overlooked, especially when writing about Indigenous peoples and minorities. One publication from the Indigenous Tourism Association of Canada entitled 12 Ways to Better Choose Our Words When We Write about Indigenous Peoples provides a basic set of guidelines. These guidelines include avoiding language that may perpetuate the idea of colonialism and reinforce the belief that Indigenous people lack sovereignty, self-determination, or self-sufficiency. It is essential to be critical of research and readings that suggest a “white savior” narrative. Another recommendation is to avoid use of possessive grammar. For example, one should avoid statements such as “Vermont’s Abenaki Tribe;” Indigenous and First Nation tribes and communities do not belong to the country or state in which they live. The next caution involves not whitewashing history. When writing about historical events involving or about Indigenous peoples, it is important to understand and pay attention to the authorship of the historical document. Quite often the authors of historical documents beginning in 15th century settler-colonial North America were white males who created false narratives of Indigenous peoples and shared such information as fact. Another principle that could help avoid reliance on whitewashed sources is to recognize that oral traditions and traditional knowledge hold and deserve the same importance and respect as Western printed historical text. The more voices of Indigenous peoples who have kept their history in community for generations are heard and acknowledged, the less old, whitewashed text will need to be used. This must be considered along with the guideline promoting collaboration and seeking permission when writing about traditional knowledge. A non-Indigenous author should not always write about everything they may want to include, particularly if it is sacred to the person, tribe, or community. One of the final recommendations is to recognize the distinctness and diversity of Indigenous peoples. There are hundreds of different tribes all over North America; generalizing the experiences, culture, and traditions of one community to describe a pan-Indigeneity negates those of all other tribes.
Changing the language used when talking or writing about Indigenous peoples is essential to shifting the narrative centuries of inaccurate depictions of them. The process of “reframing” how Indigenous peoples are written about is one step towards decolonization that Linda Tuhiwai Smith discusses in her book Decolonizing Methodologies. Chapter eight outlines twenty-five Indigenous projects that each have a unique purpose with the common objective of empowering and decolonizing Indigenous people and giving them the tools to spread awareness of their culture. For example, historically, Indigenous peoples’ living with problems such as mental health and addiction have been seen as an “Indigenous issue.” Once revised and “reframed” with a critical lens, however, it should be noted that these “issues” could have stemmed from generational trauma created by colonialism. Allan Ardrill, an Australian law professor, argues that there is no such thing as an “Indigenous problem.” The problem instead lies in colonization and the people in power who fail to recognize their privilege within a society and systems that favor non-Indigenous and non-people of color. Acknowledging one’s own privilege and understanding how systemic oppression defines the ways Indigenous peoples and people of color are treated in society can help reframe their circumstances and alleviate oppression.
While guidelines and rules can be useful for non-Indigenous authors, writing about Indigenous peoples is a process that requires self-reflection of privilege and intention. Ardrill discusses further the ways in which non-Indigenous peoples should preface their work. He argues that non-Indigenous people must acknowledge their own privileges and “question their own institutions and ways of thinking.” For non-Indigenous authors, a “deep critical reflection” of their own identity and intentions are needed prior to writing. Failure to take these steps into account could unintentionally lead to both “misappropriation of Indigenous voices” and fueling of “colonial oppression” (Ardrill 107). Ardrill also points out that perhaps Indigenous peoples are best positioned to write about themselves; or at least have someone help facilitate their own thoughts and stories. One of Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s projects suggests similarly. The goal of the “writing and theory making” project is for Indigenous peoples to feel free to create pieces of writing that reflect their culture and lives that may be useful for education. In the past, writing by non-Indigenous authors about Indigenous peoples for the sake of increasing the quantity of pieces on the topic has had the effect of “dwarfing the output of Indigenous scholars” (Ardrill 108). While the intention may be to increase academic sources that discuss Indigenous people, history, culture, etc., this can still limit or hinder the voices of actual Indigenous people.
In his dissertation Beyond Good Intentions: Critical Race Theory and the Role of Non-indigenous Allies, Canadian Tim Brucacher uses concepts from Critical Race Theory (CRT) to argue that non-Indigenous allies should think more critically about their intentions and privilege in their solidarity efforts. CTR is the theory that race is a social construct and institutions in predominantly white countries such as the US are inherently racist as white people tend to benefit from them more than people of color or even at their expense. Brucacher argues that a non-Indigenous author cannot begin writing with a mind frame that states “I’m not racist.” No growth will come from this mindset and the person will never view their own writing as harmful or learn from their mistakes. Non-Indigenous allies need not remove themselves from the conversation or from actively supporting Indigenous peoples, but they should look at their understanding of colonialism and the privileges they have from the systems that oppress Indigenous peoples and minorities through a more critical lens.
A controversy at Middlebury College illustrates how overstepping boundaries and acting on behalf of Indigenous peoples without permission caused more harm than good, regardless of the intention. On March 23, 2021, Chief Don Stevens of the Nulhegan Band of the Abenaki Nation gave a guest lecture to the students of Middlebury College’s First Year Seminar: Native Presence and Performance. During the lecture, the topic of respectable activism was brought up in response to the controversy surrounding the defacement of a 9/11 memorial by former Middlebury College students in 2013. Those students’ motives came from their belief that the flags, which were meant to commemorate the lives lost in the attack on the Twin Towers, were placed on an Indigenous burial site, as such, disrespectful. The repercussions and backlash that came from the protest, however, ended up landing mostly on the Abenaki instead of the College and the students. Even Chief Don Stevens mentioned that planting flags to commemorate people on a site where Indigenous peoples were being memorialized was honorable from his point of view. Had the students either consulted with the Abenaki prior to taking action on their behalf or thought more critically about their intentions and the outcome of their protest, much pain and misrepresentation could have been avoided.
In “Protocols, Political Correctness and Discomfort Zones: Indigenous Life Writing and Non-Indigenous Editing,” Australian editor Margaret McDonell discusses the role non-Indigenous editors play when it comes to editing Indigenous writing. She reminds the reader that creating protocols is an individual working process for the relationship between the Indigenous writer and non-Indigenous editor. McDonell encourages non-Indigenous editors to lean into the “discomfort zones” and challenges that may arise, and that ultimately, the editors are there to assist an Indigenous writer on their own journey (McDonell 93-94).
Mercedes Peters outlines the main points and arguments made by author Greg Younging in his book Elements of Indigenous Style: A Guide for Writing by and about Indigenous Peoples. The book consists of around twenty-two “principles” for writing about Indigenous people and case studies that highlight them. Peters makes the point, however, that Younging did not intend for the book to be just a simple guide or reference. Rather he invites the reader to think more critically about how to engage with Indigenous writing and to listen and decenter themselves so as to not place Indigenous peoples “under a microscope for settler consumption” (Peters 134). Throughout the book, Younging reminds the reader that “there are no easy answers and there are no quick solutions: there is only dedicated work” (Peters 135). As a Mi’kmaw, Mercedes Peters felt a personal connection with Younging’s writing where he mentions that Indigenous stories are “worth being told” in the way they want it and not something that is necessarily for a non-Indigenous reader to be able to understand easily. This connects back to Tuhiwai Smith’s “writing and theory making” project which stressed the importance of Indigenous authors having freedom with their writing. Younging’s book is not a rigid outline for how to exactly write about Indigenous peoples and emphasizes the point that Indigenous persons should not have to feel responsible to educate non-Indigenous people on how to be a good ally or author of Indigenous subjects.
Self-reflection and intention inform writing and language. The role of non-Indigenous authors and editors when it comes to writing about Indigenous peoples and their experiences and cultures should be primarily to work with, not on behalf of, and most of the time should not be undertaken without permission. Non-Indigenous people cannot force Indigenous people to give them knowledge nor can they become apathetic and distance themselves from putting in work to properly learn about Indigenous peoples and culture. A good place to start is use of the guidelines mentioned throughout this essay concerning authorship, support of sovereignty, avoidance of the whitewashing or sanitization of history, and recognition of systemic oppressions. In order to further the process of reconciliation and decolonization however, non-Indigenous writers must learn the difference between working with Indigenous people and usurping their voices and stories.
Works Cited
Ardill, Allan. “Non-Indigenous Lawyers Writing about Indigenous People.” Alternative Law Journal, vol. 37, no. 2, June 2012, pp. 107-10. ResearchGate, doi:10.1177/1037969X1203700208.
Brubacher, Tim. “Beyond Good Intentions: Critical Race Theory and the Role of Non-indigenous Allies.” 2008. Trent University (Canada), PhD dissertation. ProQuest Central; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, ezproxy.middlebury.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/beyond-good-intentions-critical-race-theory-role/docview/304386008/se-2?accountid=12447. Abstract.
McDonell, Margaret. “Protocols, Political Correctness and Discomfort Zones: Indigenous Life Writing and Non-Indigenous Editing.” Hecate, vol. 30, no. 1, 2004, pp. 83-95. GenderWatch; ProQuest Central, ezproxy.middlebury.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/protocols-political-correctness-discomfort-zones/docview/210930990/se-2?accountid=12447.
Peters, Mercedes. “The Elements of Indigenous Style: A Guide for Writing by and about Indigenous Peoples.” BC Studies, no. 207, Autumn 2020, pp. 134-35. ProQuest Central, ezproxy.middlebury.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/elements-indigenous-style-guide-writing-about/docview/2462683519/se-2?accountid=12447.
Singer, Emily. “Abenaki Denounce 9/11 Flag Memorial Vandalism.” The Middlebury Campus, 18 Sept. 2013, middleburycampus.com/21639/news/abenaki-denounce-911-flag-memorial-vandalism/.
Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. “Twenty-five Indigenous Projects.” Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, 2nd ed., London, Zed, 2012, pp. 143-64.
Stevens, Don. Lecture. 23 Mar. 2021, Middlebury College.
“12 Ways to Better Choose Our Words When We Write about Indigenous Peoples.” Indigenous Tourism Association of Canada, indigenoustourism.ca/.