Factors Impacting Modern Egyptian Education: A Historical Perspective
To understand modern Egyptian education, an explanation of historical development is in order. Shifting leadership, power, philosophy, culture and intention have strongly impacted Egyptian education, bringing the country to a system in need of reform today.
Changing leadership and policies have been a constant force in the Egyptian educational development. Overarching and relevant influences are religion, evident in the Islamic educational system that was first formed and still exists today, British occupation, which followed, and secular Egyptian education, which developed as the result of the two previous factors.
Egypt is chronicled through more than 7,000 years. (See the earlier blog entitled, “Selective Historical Egypt Timeline” for visual representation.) Education played an important role in the early days of society. Up to about 2686BC, culture was developed through the written word, and the formation of religion and societal structures took shape. Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt gave rise to the Age of the Pharaohs, which lasted for many centuries until invasion ended Pharaonic rule in 525BC. As early as 323BC, Alexandria, Egypt housed one of the world’s first and most extensive libraries. The Ancient Library of Alexandria was a pivotal place for scholarship until around 30BC when the Romans conquered Egypt. The Romans ruled Egypt until 640AD until the Arab conquest of Egypt. At this point, society shifted from a Christian to a Muslim culture, and adopted the Arabic language. Temples housed formal education, and included subjects in the sciences, medicine, and the arts. (6) In 972AD an Islamic system of education was formed through Al Azhar University. It’s teaching methodology is based on the tenants of the Quran. This act laid the groundwork for the religious education track that still exists today. Between 868 and 1260, dynasties ruled Egypt, followed by Turkish tribes, who took over until 1517. At that time, the Ottoman Empire conquered and until 1798, little emphasis was placed on education. Napoleon was next to exert his power, albeit just for the short span between 1798-1801. It is said that French influence is still highly visible in Egyptian life today. (13) The foundation of modern Egyptian education was heavily impacted by the policies and decision making of a series of individuals who lead Egypt after Napoleon, from 1805 until present time. A review of the key individuals follows, within the socio-political backdrop of their time.
Ottoman pasha Muhammad Ali ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848. He is credited with having created the “dual education system” in Egypt that still exists today. While the Islamic educational system was already in place, it did not support the economic growth Ali envisioned. Instead of modifying or recreating the existing system, he designed and implemented a parallel secular system that was entirely funded by the government. He relied on European models of education and foreign advisors. Structured with a top down philosophy, he first created a parallel higher education institution, catering to military elite, fashioned to support new leaders and develop the economy. Over time, he developed secondary and primary systems as well. The goal was to develop intelligent, balanced citizens who would support Egyptian growth. Ali’s plans were seen as a threat to Ottoman and British economic plans. The opening of the Suez Canal had made Egypt strategically important in the world economy. Eventually agreements were signed that broke up Egypt’s economic dominance in the area. Ali’s influence declined, as did the economy, making the recently created second educational system obsolete. Leaders after Ali did not support education in the same way and did not commit the resources or planning that Ali had.
Ismail led the country in 1863. He was able to reopen an agency Ali had created, the “Committee of Public Instruction”, and made progress in regaining control of education for the government but his personal love of excess and the resulting economic challenges eventually led Egypt to bankruptcy, paving the road for British Occupation in 1882. Consul general Sir Evelyn Baring, otherwise known as “Lord Cromer”, who had been the British controller in Ismail’s cabinet, then led Egypt.
Cromer’s focus was getting Egypt back to financial solvency, which did not mean investing heavily in education. On the contrary, British intention was to develop leadership to support the British staying in power. Their plan for the masses was to keep them illiterate as a means of cementing British rule. The Egyptian educated elite that they created helped to keep their power structure in place, as these individuals were indebted to the British for their own social standing and success. This model had severe impacts on the average Egyptian citizen. Population rates exploded between 1882 and 1907, with growth rates from 7 million to 11 million people. The leadership of the day did not invest in additional educational institutions. Literacy rates plummeted to 5% of the population in 1922 (6), causing an obvious negative impact on societal development as a whole. This was the backdrop for Egypt’s independence, which also happened in 1922.
Taha Hussein was the country’s first blind Minister of Education in 1950. A statement from a museum dedicated to him in Egypt states, “Dr. Taha Hussein (1889-1973) is the doyen of Arabic literature and one of the most celebrated figures of Egyptian contemporary cultural and intellectual history.” (8) He fought for Egyptian literacy and believed it was a right that all should have. He was famously quoted to say, “Education is like the water we drink and the air we breathe.”(15) He reestablished the system of free education for all Egyptians.
Under Gamal Abdel Nasser, an Arab Nationalist who officially led Egypt beginning in 1954, many social welfare programs benefitted the Egyptian population. Free education for all was an important element of his programs and even included students from other Muslim countries. Both Islamic and secular education benefited from development under his tenure. College graduates were guaranteed government employment as part of formal education plans that were made over several year periods. He died in 1970.
Anwar Sadat had been affiliated with Nasser for years, serving first as his PR Minister. He shifted Egypt’s priorities during his leadership period from 1970 to 1981. He wanted to open up and liberalize economic policies under a program called, “Open Door Policy”. He did away with the guaranteed government employment policy that college graduates had enjoyed, resulting in high levels of unemployment for graduates. Many new educational institutions opened in the 1970s while professors looked to better wages in other countries. Fundamentalists assassinated him in October 1981. His policies had caused tensions with conservative Muslim groups.
Hosni Mubarak, who was Sadat’s Vice President, and escaped with mild injuries when Sadat was killed, led officially from 1982 to 2011, bringing Egypt to current times. His leadership was highly controversial, ending in revolution in Egyptian society. Despite this point and many related ones, which will be reviewed more thoroughly in the next posting, his education policies were intended to create advancements in all areas of education, with the goal of developing the whole person as a means to elevate Egyptian society economically. His plan was called “The Grand Revival”.
Significant changes in Egypt’s leadership, philosophy, planning and goals have continuously impacted the quality and stability of Egyptian education for hundreds of years. In addition, while the leaders all wanted free education, tried to keep up with the world in sciences, humanities, and technology, lack of educational spending and population growth have crippled the state funded education system. For the purposes of focus and brevity, this article does not give details of multiple political factors, factions, revolutions, and wars, which have been an ever-present force shaping the nation and it’s education system by default.
Currently, In addition to Islamic and public secular education, private institutions are part of today’s system, offering an alternative to crumbling state institutions, over-crowded classrooms, lack of adequate teacher training in some cases and lack of teacher mobility and funding. Private schools are costly, and often include Western-based curriculum models, foreign language training, and higher quality programs in sciences and technology. (See photos and cartoons below.) Stakeholders inside and outside Egypt agree that systemic reform is in order, however agreement on methodology has been difficult to achieve, particularly in light of all that is happening socially and politically in Egypt today. Further exploration of this topic will be the focus of future posts.
Sources (noted by number in the text as appropriate):
1.Hartmann, Sarah, “The Informal Market of Education in Egypt. Private Tutoring and Its Implications”, Gutenberg Universitat Mainz, Institut fur Ethnologie und Afrikanstudien, Arbeitspapiere Nr. 88, 2008.
2.Chediac, Joyce, “The upheaval in Egypt: what impact on U.S. Imperialism”, http://www.workers.org/2011/world/upheaval_in_egypt_0224/, Feb 21, 2011.
3.E.Roger Owen, “Muhammad Ali: A View from the New World”, cmes.hmdc.harvard.edu, Sept.30, 2005.
4.Russell,Mona,”Competing, Overlapping, and Contradictory Agendas:Egyptian Education Under British Occupation, 1882-1922”,Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, Volume 21, Number 1&2, pp.50-60, 2001. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/cst/summary/v021/21.1russell01.html
5. Megahed, Nagwa, and Ginsburg, Mark, Education Policy Analysis Archives, “Globalization and the Reform of Faculties of Education in Egypt: The Roles of Individual and Organizational, National and International Actors”, Volume 19, Number 15, May 30, 2011.
6.Marlow-Ferguson, Rebecca, and Chris Lopez “World Education Encyclopedia. A Survey of Educational Systems Worldwide”, 2nd ed. Farmington Hills: Gale Group, 2002.
7.Wikimedia Foundation, “Taha Hussein”updated Feb. 23, 2013, “Education in Egypt”,updated Feb.16, 2013.
8.Egypt: The Ramatan, Taha Hussein Museum, Cairo, Egypt, http://www.touregypt.net/tahamuseum.htm,
http://www.ibiblio.org/sullivan/bios/Sadat-bio.html, “Anwar Sadat”.
9.Decimus, AncientVine.com,”Alexandria The Pearl of the Meditteranean”,2013. http://www.ancientvine.com/alexandria_egypt.html
10.EncyclopediaBritannica,”Library of Alexandria”,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/14417/Library-of-Alexandria
11.Kondos,Ramon,Your Egypt,“Timeline, A Chronology of key events in Egypt’s history”, 2009. http://www.youregypt.com/ehistory/timeline/
12.Ancient Egyptian Timeline for Children & Kids, http://www.history.timelines.org.uk
13. Fouda, Fatema Talaat, Egyptian MIIS student, interview by Paula Larink, conducted February, 2013.
14. Associated Press, “Hosni Mubarak’s Rule and Downfall – timeline”, June 2, 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/02/hosni-mubarak-rule-downfall-timeline
15. Bibliotheca Alexandria, The New Library of Alexandria, Taha Hussein Library, http://www.bibalex.org/library/tahahussein_en.aspx